Globalization and international migration go hand in hand. As new areas of the world are pushed to forge links with the global economy, they often undergo massive social upheavals. These upheavals frequently lead to migration, which in turn can cause major changes in both sending and receiving areas. Indeed, an essential characteristic of globalization is large-scale flows of goods and services, financial assets, technology and people across international borders. Governments welcome economic flows – especially of finance and trade – but are more ambivalent about the movement of people. Rich economies lay out the welcome mat for highly skilled personnel, but often shut their doors to the less skilled and refugees.

Key trends

The world total of international migrants (defined as people living outside their country of birth for at least a year) grew from about 100 million in 1960 to 175 million in 2000. About half these migrants are women. Most of the increase has taken place in the period of rapid globalization since 1980. Much migration is within regions. North-North migration often involves skilled personnel, while South-South mobility usually sees workers move from areas with high unemployment to where the jobs are. But migration from the South to the North is growing fast. The number of migrants in developed countries more than doubled in the last two decades of the twentieth century: in 1980 it stood at 48 million; by 2000 it had reached 110 million. In the same period, the number of migrants in developing countries has grown more slowly – from 52 million to 65 million (see Figure 1.3).

Only about 3 per cent of the world’s population are migrants, but their concentration in certain regions often puts them at the forefront of social change. By 2000, 63 per cent of the world’s migrants were in developed countries, where they made up 8.7 per cent of the total population. The remainder were in developing countries, where they constituted only 1.3 per cent of the total population. According to the latest figures from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, there are 35 million immigrants in the United States, comprising 12.3 per cent of the total population. Western Europe has 32 million (9.7 per cent), Canada 5.7 million (19 per cent) and Australia 4 million (23 per cent). Migrants and their descendants seem to prefer large cities. In Toronto, for example, they comprise 44 per cent of the population. The comparable figure for Brussels is 29 per cent, while one in four Londoners is a migrant or descendant of one.

How globalization shapes migration

Globalization has increased disparities in income and human security between North and South. Economic liberalization, the entry of multinationals into formerly closed areas of national economies and structural-adjustment policies are all instruments of social transformation. In many parts of the South, industrialization has lessened the value of traditional modes of production, forcing people to move from rural areas to cities. When workers do not find enough work in the cities, overseas migration may be the next step. Weak economies and weak states often go together, so impoverishment and outward migration are closely linked.

Globalization also creates the cultural and technical conditions for mobility. Global media beam idealized images of northern lifestyles into the poorest villages. Electronic communications allow easy access to information on migration routes and work opportunities. Long-distance travel has become cheaper and more accessible. Once migratory flows are established, they generate ‘migration networks’ in which the first to arrive help members of their families or communities who wish to follow.

Facilitating migration has become a major international business involving travel agents, bankers, lawyers and recruiters. Governments try to restrict the illegal side of the migration 'industry' – smuggling and trafficking. Yet the more governments try to control borders, the greater the flows of undocumented migrants appear to be. Governments remain focused on national migration controls, while migrants follow the transnational logic of globalized labour markets.

How migration shapes globalization

International migration is a major force for change. Some observers see it as an instrument for reducing global inequality and enhancing development. However, migration can also have negative effects, such as a 'brain drain' of highly qualified doctors, nurses and computer specialists. Governments of sending countries hope that migration will stimulate development through the money sent home by migrants and the transfer of skills. Indeed, global remittances were estimated at US$130 billion in 2002 – considerably more than official development aid. Much of this money goes into consumption, but some is invested in health, education and productive activities. When it comes to the transfer of skills, however, sending countries do not always gain as much as they would like. Many migrants are employed in unskilled jobs and are unable to upgrade their skills. On the other hand, migrants in high-status jobs are unlikely to return to their home countries unless these offer stability, security and growth.

Migration leads to cultural and social change. In areas of origin, returnees may import new ideas that unsettle traditional practices and hierarchies. Receiving areas, on the other hand, are being transformed by unprecedented cultural and religious diversity. The multi-ethnic societies of Europe, North America and Oceania have introduced measures to integrate immigrant populations and to improve inter-group relations. But multicultural policies remain controversial, especially in view of security concerns that have arisen since September 2001. Policies on immigration have become highly restrictive – yet do not seem to have done much to reduce migration.

Migration can be a catalyst for political change in areas of origin, with diasporas supporting movements for democratization. (Diasporas may also provide the funds that fuel armed conflict.) In receiving countries, extremist politicians often depict migrants as threats to local livelihoods and cultural identities. Campaigns against immigrants and asylum seekers have become powerful mobilizing tools for the far right.

Towards international collaboration

The economic issues related to globalization come under the purview of multilateral institutions such as the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the World Trade Organization. Migration control, by contrast, has long been seen as a preserve of national sovereignty. As a consequence, the international community has failed to build institutions to ensure orderly migration, maximize the developmental benefits that could flow from it and protect the human rights of migrants. Though elements of an international framework already exist in International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions and the UN Convention on the Rights of Migrant Workers and Members of their Families, relatively few countries have ratified these instruments.

Some regional bodies have sought to cooperate on migration. The European Union has gone furthest by introducing free movement for citizens of its member states, and is working towards common policies on asylum seekers and immigration from outside the union. No other regional body has gone this far.

High-emigration countries are motivated by the need to reduce their labour surpluses and maximize remittances. Immigrant-receiving countries profit from cheap workers, and have been reluctant to take steps which might increase their costs. To safeguard the rights of migrant workers, more countries must implement ILO conventions and link them in a comprehensive framework. In addition, common policies on migration should be seen as an essential part of regional integration, and tied to policies on international cooperation and development.

Bilateral cooperation between states could also bring benefits; migrants could gain through better protection and social security. Emigration countries could benefit from the smoother transfer of remittances and restrictions on agents and recruiters. Immigration countries could gain a more stable and better-trained migrant workforce.

One significant move in this regard was the establishment in late 2003 of the Global Commission on International Migration. Mandated by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, the commission launched its report in October 2005. One of its key conclusions is that the international community has failed to realize the full potential of international migration or rise to its significant challenges. It recommends greater policy coherence at the national level, which can in turn result in more effective cooperation both regionally and globally. Besides specific recommendations on a range of issues, the report sets 'principles for action' to help states and other stakeholders formulate a more comprehensive and global response to migration.

Looking ahead

Box 1.2 Displacement and natural disasters: the 2004 tsunami