Latest news feedReview of UNHCR's Refugee Education Activities
SCOPE OF THE REVIEW
This review analyzes and makes recommendations on UNHCR’s global operational policies, strategy and management in refugee and returnee education. The review, part of the evaluation work programme for 1996, was carried out from September 1996 to January 1997. This followed recognition of the urgent need to evaluate UNHCR education policy, priorities and practice, which have been constantly affected since the financial constraints of the late 1980s.
Since the 1960s, refugee education has been a fundamental aspect of UNHCR operations, and an essential means towards the attainment of durable solutions. Nevertheless, staff and offices at all levels are often unclear about the purpose, objectives, and coverage of refugee education programmes. The following questions summarize the major issues in refugee education which were considered in the course of the review:
- To what extent are current strategies and programmes in conformity with the “Revised (1995) Guidelines for Educational Assistance to Refugees”, which outlines current UNHCR education policies and recommended practices?
- What priorities within the overall education programme can be established?
- How can the “situation” approach under Project Delphi be applied to education, with increasing focus on durable solutions?
- Can effective standards and indicators for education activities be established?
- How can UNHCR effectively respond to education needs in emergencies?
- How can UNHCR deal with disparities and imbalances between levels and types of educational support?
- How can education for girls and women be promoted?
- How can UNHCR further develop and manage the DAFI (Albert Einstein German Academic Refugee Initiative) tertiary scholarship programme?
- What should be UNHCR’s response to the education needs of urban refugees?
- How can the management of education programmes be improved?
- Following from the above, should a new UNHCR education policy be developed?
Glen Dunkley, a former staff member who has spent many years with UNHCR, in related humanitarian work, and in the field of education, wrote this report. In the course of the review, he drew on statistical and background documentation made available by the PTSS Education Unit (including the results of two questionnaires sent to field offices in early 1996), carried out extensive interviews of staff from UNHCR, UNESCO, and NGOs, and went on a mission to West Africa, where some of the largest UNHCR education programmes take place. Mr. Dunkley carried out the review in close cooperation with the Programme and Technical Support Section (PTSS), represented by Ms. Margaret Sinclair, Senior Education Officer, and the Inspection and Evaluation Service, represented by Mr. Robert White, Senior Officer.
OVERVIEW
The need for refugee education
(1) Education for refugees is almost as important as meeting their physical needs for food, water, shelter and health. Refugee education is the process of providing knowledge, skills, attitudes and values necessary for survival, improvement of the quality of life, adaptation to their changing world, and preparation for eventual return to their country. Education is not a luxury. It is the most critical element in bridging the gap between relief assistance and durable solutions. Whether the refugees eventually repatriate voluntarily, settle locally, or resettle in a third country, basic education will be essential for their successful integration and future development.
(2) The nature of UNHCR’s work has changed in many parts of the world. Conflicts with their roots in the Cold War have increasingly been resolved, with large numbers of refugees returning voluntarily to their countries of origin. There are notable examples of education as a means to facilitate reintegration. UNHCR must build on these successes and develop an integrated approach which focuses on refugee education as a fundamental catalyst for achieving durable solutions.
Refugee and national education - similarities and differences
(3) While there are similarities between refugee education needs and those of nationals in a country of asylum, there are also differences. Refugee origins are often similar to those of the vast majority of people in underdeveloped rural areas. In their country of origin, many families had met basic needs through subsistence agriculture, collecting cooking fuel and water, and other daily activities. Although the value placed on formal education varies from society to society, a majority of refugee children and adults will have had only limited education.
(4) Differences lie in the origins of many refugee situations, with roots in intra-state conflicts based on intolerance, xenophobia and ethno-nationalism. Many refugees have been traumatically uprooted from their normal lives and placed in a context where they cannot function in a traditional way. Many programmes in refugee education do not adequately take into account this specificity of the refugee condition. Refugees’ education needs must be met in a manner which both alleviates their current crisis and prepares them to return home, to enter the mainstream of their own society and, hence, to participate meaningfully in their ongoing personal and national development.
Problems and inconsistencies in refugee education
(5) UNHCR’s education responses in these situations have been varied, embracing a wide range of activities, including:
- widespread access to primary schools;
- a broad range of education programmes in some countries of asylum;
- material support to schools inside certain conflict zones and in areas of return; and
- new curriculum initiatives in the areas of education for peace, conflict resolution and human rights, and environmental awareness.
(6) On the other hand, refugee education programmes have often been plagued by a variety of problem areas and inconsistencies, such as
- unsystematic refugee education in emergencies, leading to little or no education activities in some countries of asylum (under pressure from governments, or in a vain attempt to foster repatriation);
- lack of a “situation” approach to education: disparity between education programmes in different countries of asylum with similar group(s) of refugees; and sometimes no relationship between refugee education in the asylum country (whose education approaches are sometimes copied) and education in countries of origin;
- more boys than girls attending school;
- ineffective primary education programmes with high drop-out rates;
- nearly non-existent educational initiatives for adolescents;
- over-reliance on costly educational scholarships, which privilege urban refugees;
- vocational training activities showing little or no results in terms of employment of graduates; and
- refugee education which does not provide support for refugees suffering from a traumatic event.
(7) Since the late 1980s, UNHCR has also faced a situation of restricted donor funding for all activities, including education. This situation is likely to continue in the foreseeable future. The impact has been exacerbated by a tendency to avoid difficult management choices and simply allow ongoing activities to proceed with fewer funds, instead of establishing clear education priorities. Additionally, some popular programmes are relatively well-funded while others go begging from e.g. depleted special operations budgets, which has contributed to disparities between programmes.
UNHCR’S EDUCATION PRIORITIES
(8) Education priorities in UNHCR must be established, and should focus on certain types of education and certain fundamental issues:
Primary education
(9) It is widely recognized that primary education is critical for both personal and national development. UNHCR-funded primary education is often ineffective, with high levels of drop-out. Provision of primary education for children is available in most refugee communities, but usually falls short of universal coverage, especially due to drop-outs and cultural constraints.
(10) UNHCR must focus energy on trying to approach the goal of universal primary education for refugee children, as a way of meeting their special psychosocial needs, and preparing them for the challenges of integration following repatriation. UNHCR must, for the same reasons, strive to improve the effectiveness of primary education through improvements in teacher training, class size and the provision of appropriate teaching and learning materials. UNHCR must establish ways of always ensuring basic education is provided no matter what the political context. When involved in conflict zones or returnee areas, UNHCR must work with UNICEF, UNESCO and others to ensure that assistance is provided to help keep the education system functioning.
Basic education and literacy retention for adolescents
(11) One of the most serious issues faced by UNHCR is the problem of adolescents without constructive activities. Education for refugee adolescents is the area which needs the most development by UNHCR. Adolescents have been torn from their normal life. They may have been separated from their family and friends. They face the normal stresses and strains of puberty and adolescence. They are at high risk of prostitution, indoctrination, and military and criminal recruitment. A large number, possibly the majority, are functionally illiterate. They need basic skills as well as structure and support in their lives. There are very few education opportunities currently available to them.
(12) The most effective available tool is education. Refugee education for adolescents needs to shift towards an emphasis on basic education and literacy retention for the majority, while maintaining a small capacity for formal post-primary academic and vocational studies for the gifted or particularly vulnerable. Some adolescents will study in the formal primary school system, which should include special classes set apart for older students and using appropriate teaching methods. Providing basic education for out-of-school adolescents may be analogous to primary education for children, but with teaching techniques and materials appropriate for adolescents. Some adolescents may achieve basic literacy but will quickly become functionally illiterate if they have no opportunity to use their skills. At a minimum, opportunities must be available to reinforce their literacy, and to acquire additional structure in their lives in the form of recreation and sports.
Adult literacy
(13) UNHCR must maintain and build on the momentum achieved in adult literacy activities, especially for females. Not only is literacy fundamental for adults in terms of their personal and economic development, but it is also vital to remember that literate parents are more supportive of education for their children.Post-primary and vocational education
(14) Although important, other educational activities are accorded a lower priority in terms of coverage, for funding and other reasons:
- secondary education
- vocational and skills training
- tertiary education
(15) Cost effectiveness is a major consideration. Costs differ with the level and type of education assistance. Community primary schools and adult literacy classes cost the least, followed by community secondary schools; secondary scholarships, vocational training and tertiary scholarships are at the top of the cost pyramid. Generally, scholarship assistance is five to ten times as expensive as community based approaches. UNHCR must ensure that funds entrusted by donors are used to benefit the largest number of refugees possible.
FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES IN REFUGEE EDUCATION
Refugee education - the country of origin, “situation” focus
(16) Although there are common patterns in refugee education, programmes vary widely. UNHCR must ensure that refugee education is integrated within each identified “situation” in the Project Delphi framework. Refugee education should focus on the country/area of origin (in curriculum, language, and culture) in most refugee situations, at the same time acknowledging the realities of the country in which the refugees find themselves. Education received by refugees should be recognized by the country of origin.
Minimum standards for refugee education
(17) Standards should be set for the minimum acceptable level of service or support to achieve specified educational objectives. At present, standards in UNHCR-funded school programmes vary from place to place. Basic global educational standards are necessary if UNHCR is to ensure an effective level of quality, consistency of approach, and avoidance of inequalities between programmes. An initial list of education objectives and standards (primary, secondary, and in-service teacher training) has been incorporated into the latest programming instructions “UNHCR Activities 1996 to 1998: Reporting and Programming”, 25 February 1997: IOM 16/97, FOM 21/97).
Female refugee education
(18) On a global basis, female refugee participation in education remains low, following patterns in countries of origin (ranging from 10% to 40% of students at the primary level, less in secondary and vocational studies, and only 25% of all students at the tertiary level). Adult literacy courses are the only educational activity where female numbers are higher than male (over 55% of students). UNHCR must work to increase female enrollment and retention in all types of education. As practitioners in the field are aware, this will not be easy as strong cultural and social barriers are encountered. Greater use of quotas or differential entry requirements should be considered for increasing female participation in limited access secondary, vocational and tertiary courses.
Education in urban areas
(19) Education for refugees in urban areas should conform to the new “UNHCR Comprehensive Policy on Urban Refugees.” Currently, many refugees in urban areas have a definite advantage over their rural counterparts regarding access to education (and other assistance). In secondary and tertiary courses, UNHCR must reverse the traditional bias in favour of urban-based refugee students, who receive scholarship preference over their rural peers, who generally constitute the majority of refugees. Recommendations on urban refugees are made in an effort to redress this imbalance.
The management of refugee education
(20) UNHCR education management must shift towards the priority areas of basic education for children, adolescents, and adults, and this should be reflected in education staffing. Education scholarships should be de-emphasized except at the tertiary level; DAFI scholarship assistance should include technical as well as academic education. Responsibility for field administration of refugee education within UNHCR should rest with Education, Community Services, or Programme Officers, depending on the volume of education activities.
UNHCR education policy
(21) One of the principal challenges facing UNHCR will be the development of an education policy which achieves the overarching objective of basic education for all children, adolescents and adults while, at the same time, providing some targeted forms of education for the gifted and vulnerable. A new education policy statement, following the priorities and directions set forth in this review, should be established. A series of workshops should be convened to assist in dissemination of the policy, including guidelines for implementation. The new education policy, including minimum standards, must be developed in close coordination with the new Operations Management System.
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
Basic Education for all (primary education and literacy)
Recommendation 1
UNHCR must place increased priority on primary education, through the following actions:
- A target of universal education for all children should be pursued. Primary schools which have succeeded in enrolling 80-90% of eligible children can be said to have achieved their target. A review of progress made should be carried out in early 1999. Basic education must be provided no matter what the political context.
- Primary schooling should always be the first education task in emergency operations.
- Primary schools should be developed inside refugee communities to facilitate easy access by young children, and community involvement in school management. Centrally located schools should provide separate classes for older students.
- Provision should be made for utilization of refugee teachers, ongoing in-service teacher training, and teacher evaluation.
- A per-student amount of $35 to $40 in 1997/8 is a recommended order of magnitude for primary education. Specific targets should derive from the minimum standards in Annex V, and variations according to location must be recognized.
Action: * UNHCR field offices (Education/Community Services/Programme Officers) and Education Unit (PTSS)
Recommendation 2
Programmes of primary education for illiterate refugee adolescents should be developed, including special literacy materials, a participatory and non-formal approach, certification, and, if possible and subject to funding, development of field-level pilot projects in 1998, possibly with agencies such as UNICEF and UNESCO.
Action: Education Unit and field offices
Recommendation 3
Literacy retention and recreation activities should be established for literate adolescents who are not in secondary or vocational programmes. Subject to funding availability, this could be initiated in the form of a pilot project in 1998.
Action: Education Unit and field offices
Recommendation 4
Adult literacy programmes should be expanded, with an overall long term goal of eliminating adult illiteracy. As a priority, they should have an initial emphasis on providing education to female refugees and vulnerable groups.
Action: Field offices
* All recommendations for “field offices” apply to Education/Community Services/
Programme Officers in the field.
Post primary and vocational education
Recommendation 5
- Secondary schooling should be provided on a very limited basis for academically gifted students, with priority to community schools in rural areas (when numbers and locations justify it).
- A per-student amount of $70 to $80 in 1997/8 is a recommended order of magnitude for secondary education. Specific targets should derive from the minimum standards in Annex V, and variations by location must be recognized.
Action: Field offices
Recommendation 6
Vocational training activities should focus on skills where employment or individual earning opportunities are immediately available upon completion. In that regard, priority should be given to apprenticeship-type training in association with informal sector businesses, production units, viable commercial operations or integrated with small business activities.
Action: Field offices
Recommendation 7
- Priority for all tertiary scholarships should focus on training in areas where employment is more likely to be available upon completion. The vast majority of tertiary level scholarships should be provided to graduates from rural areas, including refugee community secondary schools, even if they have lower scores than their urban counterparts.
- UNHCR should continue to manage the DAFI fund, on behalf of the German Government, but consideration should be given to the inclusion of higher technical education. [NOTE: To be negotiated with, and subject to agreement by, the donor]
Action: Field offices and Education Unit
Fundamental Issues in refugee education
Recommendation 8
Refugee education should be implemented within the situation approach, and closely linked with education in the post-repatriation period.
Action: Directors of Operations and field offices
Recommendation 9
Minimum standards should continue to be developed for all types of refugee education, as part of the new Operations Management System.
Action: Education Unit and Programme Co-ordination Section (PCS), DOS
Recommendation 10
More detailed education statistics should be developed as part of the Operations Management System.
Action: Education Unit and PCSRecommendation 11
- A target of 50% female teachers in refugee primary, basic, adult literacy, secondary and vocational education must be given high priority.
- A target of 50% female refugee students in primary/basic, vocational, secondary, and tertiary education should be established (to the extent that sufficient female applicants are available).
- A review of progress made should be carried out in early 1999.
Action: Field offices and Education Unit
Recommendation 12
The following policy guidelines for education of urban refugees are proposed:
- Education assistance should normally be provided only to formally recognized refugees.
- Education assistance should not be provided to refugees who have moved from rural to urban areas in the same country.
- Education assistance should not normally be provided to “irregular movers” from other countries.
- Priority for tertiary scholarships should not be given to urban refugees.
- Where there are significant numbers of refugees from the same country, the development of primary/secondary community schools in urban areas, rather than provision of scholarships, should be encouraged.
Action: PTSS (Education Unit and Community Services Unit), and field offices
Recommendation 13
Low cost curriculum enrichment initiatives should continue to be developed by UNHCR.
Action: Education Unit
Recommendation 14
Pre-school education classes should be encouraged but cannot be financed by UNHCR as a priority, except for teacher training and limited materials.
Action: Field offices
UNHCR management of education programmes
Recommendation 15
- Management priorities, at both Headquarters and the field, must shift towards the key area of basic education for all children, adolescents and adults. As part of the annual programming exercise and mid-year revisions, field offices should be required to implement the new education standards, flagging all budget increases needed for this purpose.
- Field-level educational staffing, using these priorities as the basis, should take the following forms:
- UNHCR education specialists for situations/regions/countries with large education budgets and/or large refugee student populations;
- Community Services Officers responsible for the Education Sector in mid-size programmes; and
- In the absence of a Community Services Officer, a Programme Officer responsible for the Education Sector.
- Officers assigned responsibility for education should have complete responsibility for project management of the Education Sector, in close coordination with the community support team within the Operations Management structure.
- At field level, UNHCR staff should not become directly involved in selection of host institutions and scholarship recipients, but rather should work through governmental or NGO implementing partners.
Action: Education Unit, Directors of Regional Bureaux/Operations, field offices, PCS.
Recommendation 16: DAFI administration
The central functions for DAFI scholarships should include provision of guidelines to the field, field missions, division of the annual allocation among the major programmes, and follow-up on the relevant statistics and reports for the donor.
Action: Education Unit
UNHCR refugee education policy
Recommendation 17: New education policy
- The Revised (1995) Guidelines for Educational Assistance to Refugees should be modified according to new refugee education priorities, and a new UNHCR policy on education developed. The policy should prioritize basic education and give prominence to fundamental issues cited above.
- A series of workshops should be organised to introduce the new education policy to UNHCR and operational partner staff.
- A mini-module focusing on the new education policy should be integrated into all Operations Management Training.
Action: Education Unit and PCS.
BACKGROUND
(22) In the aftermath of World War Two and the emerging Cold War, refugee programmes were focused primarily on the integration of individual refugees into the relatively developed states of Europe and North America. Refugee rights to education, which are outlined in the 1951 Convention, reflect this context with an emphasis on Governments of asylum assisting refugees with education in local institutions. In subsequent years, the focus of refugee programmes shifted to Africa, Asia and Latin America, where large numbers of refugees fled into mainly poor, developing countries. In these countries, Governments often could not afford to integrate refugees into national school systems and, therefore, the international community, through UNHCR, began to fund refugee education activities.
(23) The nature of assistance also began to move from a focus on individual cases to include an emphasis on large refugee communities. In education, this was most visible in the development of refugee community primary schools, alongside the more traditional individual scholarship assistance in national schools. In 1966, the Executive Committee decided that primary schooling should be included under General Programmes.
(24) In the late 1980s and early 1990s, some large refugee education programmes began to emphasize education as a means to facilitate achievement of durable solutions, in particular voluntary repatriation and reintegration in the country of origin. This is taking place by focusing on the refugees’ language and culture, using a curriculum similar to the country/area of origin, and using refugee teachers.
The volume of educational assistance in UNHCR
(25) The UNHCR 1996 global education budget totals nearly $52 million (see Annex 1, “1996 Budget: Education Sector, Breakdown by Source of Funds”). These statistics apply to financial support from UNHCR. They do not include assistance from other organizations, government-funded education in host country institutions or refugee self-help.
(26) The majority of funds expended by UNHCR on education is currently concentrated in twelve refugee situations covering twenty-five countries (summary chart, “1996 Budget: Education Sector, Breakdown by Major Population Groups” found as Annex 2), accounting for some 85% of the budget. The vast majority is spent on primary education in countries of asylum and origin. Significant amounts support vocational training programmes, and smaller amounts cover secondary schooling, tertiary scholarships, adult literacy, pre-schooling and other education activities.
- The 1996 education budget breakdown (for the twelve major refugee situations) comprises
- 56% for primary schooling in countries of asylum
- 17% for vocational training
- 15% for returnee education facilities (mostly primary)
- 4% for secondary schooling
- 3% for tertiary scholarships
- 1.5% for adult literacy and for pre-schooling
- 2% for other education activities
(27) Education activities in Africa and Asia account for over 90% of all beneficiaries of UNHCR-funded refugee education. At present, nearly 740,000 children are supported in primary schools, some 36,000 in secondary schools, and nearly 2,000 at tertiary and formal post secondary levels. Additionally, there are approximately 35,000 adults and children benefiting from literacy and other education activities, and almost 10,000 in various formal and non-formal vocational training courses.
Types of refugee education
(28) Primary schools are now widespread in nearly all UNHCR-assisted refugee programmes and account for the vast majority of education activities. These schools are normally community-based and managed by governmental or non-governmental implementing partners. There are also smaller numbers of individuals assisted in local schools, particularly in urban areas. The “education pyramid” seen below provides an graphic indication for 1995, when enrolment in secondary education was only 5% of enrolment in primary education, and enrolment in tertiary education was only 5% of enrolment in secondary education.
1995 UNHCR FUNDED EDUCATION PROGRAMMES
(refugees and other persons of concern to UNHCR)
Total enrolment (not to scale)
(29) Secondary education has traditionally been provided for relatively small numbers of gifted students to attend local or national institutions in countries of asylum. Some refugee community-based secondary schools have been developed in several of the larger programmes. The Executive Committee decided that assistance for lower secondary education would become a part of General Programmes in 1977. Funding for all levels of secondary schooling were shifted to General Programmes in 1989. Although the above statistics provide a general picture, it must be noted that the distinction between “primary” and “secondary” levels varies greatly, with secondary schooling in different countries starting between the sixth and ninth year. Also, many secondary aged students may be studying in primary classes, for several reasons (lack of access to schooling, former primary school drop-out, or studies interrupted by displacement).
(30) Vocational studies are concentrated in community-based programmes, ranging from non-formal short courses to formal one or two year curricula. The amount of vocational skills training increased significantly during the 1980s and 1990s. These activities are mostly funded under General Programmes. During the 1980s, adult literacy activities for refugees emerged in many programmes. They were often linked with non-formal vocational training, in particular for women, and sometimes included day care facilities for the young children of participants. (31) At the tertiary level, all assistance is in the form of scholarships at local, national or regional institutions, supported by a trust fund and an earmarked account. Currently, the majority of scholarships are funded under the DAFI programme. The “Education Account”, established in 1966 to support secondary and tertiary level scholarships, is being phased out.
UNHCR education policy
(32) The 1951 Convention on Refugees provides only limited guidance for refugee education policy in today’s world. Much more useful policy guidance is found in the 1990 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. The CRC provides a clear policy framework, where: every child has a right to education; primary education is free and compulsory; and different forms of post-primary and higher education are accessible on the basis of capability and equality.
(33) Executive Committee conclusions in recent years also form an important part of the parameters for current refugee education policy. The Executive Committee has stressed the importance of educational programmes contributing towards refugee children’s emotional stability and development, and also towards finding durable solutions. It has repeatedly highlighted the need to give higher priority to the education of all refugee children, to ensure equal access for girls, and to give due regard to the curriculum of the country of origin. Current UNHCR education policy and recommended practices are outlined in a document entitled, “Revised (1995) Guidelines for Education Assistance to Refugees”.
BASIC EDUCATION FOR ALL
(34) “Education” refers to the provision of learning opportunities in a purposeful and organized manner through various means including, but not limited to, schools and other educational institutions. “Basic education” refers to instruction at the first or foundation level, upon which subsequent learning can be based, whether for children, adolescents or adults. Basic education is focused on essential learning tools which include literacy, numeracy, problem solving, and learning how to learn. To these skills must be added a structure for providing adequate recreation and sports activities for children and adolescents.
(35) The “Basic Education for All” approach was developed at the “World Conference on Education for All”, held in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990. The education policy approach articulated by the conference has been adopted worldwide by UNICEF, UNESCO, the World Bank and UNDP as well as participating Governments and NGOs.
(36) This priority on basic education, adapted for the refugee context, is the central core of UNHCR refugee education policy. In other words, the top education priorities for UNHCR should be to continue to improve the provision of basic education for all children and adolescents, and to work towards the goal of literacy for adolescents and adults. This should take place regardless of whether refugees are in the earliest stages of an emergency or a long-standing asylum situation. Other specialized levels and types of education are important but must be given a lower priority as a matter of policy.
(37) A basic refugee curriculum, as outlined above, will normally be oriented to the country of origin. Unless local integration is the long term goal, refugee schools should not be using the curriculum of the host country. The curriculum must also deal with topics specific to their situation as refugees. These special topics might include peace education, conflict resolution, human rights awareness, environmental awareness, health issues, and an introduction to the host country culture.
Four components of basic education
I. Primary Education for Children
1995 REFUGEE ENROLMENT IN UNHCR-FUNDED PRIMARY EDUCATION
* Applies to countries with UNHCR-funded primary education programmes
** Primary education enrolment divided by corresponding age group (see paragraphs 41 and 42)
(38) Primary education is roughly defined as the first years of schooling focused on the basic curriculum described above plus recreation and sports. In national systems, it can vary from four to eight years duration, starting at 5, 6 or 7 years of age. A composite model based on global practice might include four to five hours of study per day for about 200 days per year, over six years, starting at six years of age.
(39) Development studies show that primary schooling is an enormously powerful investment. There is a substantial body of evidence to show that primary education, in addition to being a human right, is productive in an economic and social sense at both a personal and national level, and affects student attitudes in ways which support development goals.
(40) Although UNHCR for years has placed emphasis on primary education, results are not encouraging. There are three main, interrelated problems found in most refugee primary education programmes:
Lack of universal enrolment and retention of students
(41) UNHCR’s long range goal is the provision of primary education to all children. According to UNESCO statistics, the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER)) for Sub-Saharan African countries in 1992 was 73% (80% for boys, 67% for girls). The GER is computed as the ratio of enrolments in primary school to the estimated population in the corresponding age-group and includes overaged students such as repeaters and late entrants (meaning that it can exceed 100%). For East Asia/Oceania, the GER was 114% (117% for boys, 112% for girls) and for Southern Asia, 91% (101% for boys, 80% for girls). Studies have shown that enrolment and retention rates are lowest for people from isolated rural areas, females, and members of minorities. The majority of refugee children come from these groups and will remain disadvantaged if they are not given access to effective primary education.
(42) As can be seen from the above table (last column) the regional Gross Enrolment Ratios for refugee children, estimated crudely as refugee primary school children whose schooling is funded by UNHCR divided by the number of children in a six-year age-group of the assisted refugee population, are below the regional averages cited by UNESCO. The overall average is 37%. Lower averages are to be expected since many refugees come from border areas of their home countries, where education was less well developed. Another relevant factor is that refugee children whose schooling is not funded or co-funded by UNHCR are not counted in this calculation. It should also be noted that the population data have serious limitations and that accurate age-group data are not available.
(43) The regional averages for the refugee GERs are pulled down also by situations where UNHCR was not able, as of 1995, to initiate refugee schooling, such as Bangladesh (for refugee children from Myanmar) and Eastern Zaire. In the latter locations the GER was zero. In some other locations, the GER actually exceeds 100%, where young people in the country of origin have been deprived of access to education, due to civil conflict, lack of schools in remote locations, etc. and there is a backlog of unmet need.
(44) Given the strong economic and social benefits which accrue from primary schooling, what causes enrolment and retention problems? There are different reasons:
- overcrowded classes and lack of educational materials;
- lack of education and interest among parents;
- difficult physical access to schools, or insecurity, in some locations;
- the cost of primary education for poor families, with frequent direct or hidden costs for families, such as clothing or uniforms; and
- a range of powerful economic, cultural and social reasons for parents favouring the education of sons over daughters in many societies.
Poor quality of primary education, and level of performance:
(45) Many refugee schools encounter problems maintaining an acceptable level of performance. Good primary schooling is, essentially, the successful acquisition of specified knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The quality of education is of central importance to personal and national development. Those who do not attain the basic skills of literacy, numeracy, problem solving, and learning how to learn will be at a personal disadvantage and less likely to have a positive impact on the reconstruction and development of their societies. Education activities which do not achieve these objectives are a waste of time and money.
(46) Why is the quality of refugee education so often poor? In no particular order of priority, they include the following:
- high student - teacher ratios in the classrooms, whereby individual students cannot receive direct feedback;
- lack of adequate learning and teaching materials and facilities;
- lack of participation and interest by refugee parents or communities;
- limited education background of teachers, and need for improved techniques;
- management or resource problems; and
- lack of priority or attention paid to education and the Education Sector.
(47) Resulting inequalities and lack of consistency create confusion about objectives and tactics, generate wastage of resources, and result in a lost generation of uneducated, untrained refugee children and youth.
(48) One aspect of inconsistency pertains to classroom structures. The basic purpose of a classroom is to provide shelter from the weather. For construction of facilities where cold or wet weather is not a problem, a simple pole framework and plastic sheeting or thatch are adequate in the first instance, to permit speedy response. A more durable form of shelter may become necessary if it is deemed cost effective in terms of the refugees’ likely duration of stay. In some locations plastic sheeting has a lifespan of only a few months. Normally ‘durable’ means a good frame and roof and a cement floor. A self-help approach should be used, with community involvement. Facilities should not necessarily be constructed to official government standards except in returnee and local settlement programmes.Some UNHCR programmes have established relatively high quality, effective primary education projects:
- Primary education has been well developed in the transit centres and refugee settlements of Northern Uganda, where refugee students follow the Uganda curriculum and an increasing number are scoring high marks in the Uganda Primary School Leaving Examination. Noteworthy is the attention given to in-service teacher training, with courses during vacations, and two-day courses during term time in different locations. The Jesuit Refugee Services project in East Moyo has four education advisers who give in-school guidance to refugee teachers and mark their monthly assignments, additional to the two field supervisors responsible for administration and discipline. Some teachers are sponsored for ‘O’ level courses and for professional teacher training by distance methods.
- The International Rescue Committee project for refugee education in Guinea has a well developed teacher training section. Major teacher training programmes for refugee teachers are conducted in Pakistan by GTZ and in Nepal by APSO (Irish Agency for Personal Service Overseas).
(49) On the issue of resources, current UNHCR primary education costs vary from $21 to $38 per student in Africa and Asia. The comparable UNESCO figure for public expenditure on pre-primary and primary education in Sub Saharan Africa was $44 in both 1985 and 1992 (a decline in real terms reflecting difficult economic conditions over this period). For Eastern Asia and Oceania (including China), the per-student expenditure for pre-primary and primary schooling was $31 in 1985 and $65 in 1992; while for Southern Asia (including India), the per-student cost rose from $46 in 1985 to $120 in 1992 (World Education Report, 1995). Per capita costs must take into account such variables as teacher incentives (the vast majority of the costs), class size and use of shift systems, and cost of school materials, all of which depend on local circumstances.
Disparities between programmes, including those within the same “situation”:
(50) Why is education so inconsistent from place to place? Overall effectiveness of primary education is further exacerbated by problems of inequalities:
- between refugee schools within the same country;
- between education programmes provided for the same group of refugees in various countries of asylum;
- in the level of education provided vis-à-vis that of nationals in the same country; and
- in the level of education provided as compared with that of the country of origin.
